WHOI Technical Reports

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https://hdl.handle.net/1912/554

The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution publishes technical reports describing projects carried out by WHOI researchers. New reports are added as they become available.

Pre-1978 reports are scanned and added by request; contact the WHOAS project manager whoas@whoi.edu to have a Technical Report added.

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  • Technical Report
    Thermoconvective eddies in air : application to meteorology
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1939) Avsec, Dusan ; Ronne, Carl A.
    The object of the present work is a study thermoconvective eddies in a layer of air heated uniformly from below. Being given the importance that these eddies present in meteorlogical phenomena, we have tried to attain three principal objectives: 1. To realize systematic experiments on thermoconvective eddies in air under thicknesses exceeding considerably the scale generally employed by preceding experimenters; 2. To verify experimentally the practical value of the numerical results deriving from the theory of thermoconvective eddies; 3. To complete, by the results acquired in the course of our researches in the laboratory, the theory of thermoconvective eddies in the free atmosphere.
  • Technical Report
    Examples and outline of certain modifications in isentropic analysis
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1941-01-31) Montgomery, Raymond B. ; Spilhaus, Athelstan Fred
    Isentropic analysis in this country originated with a particular purpose in view, namely as a means of using moisture distribution to determine flow patterns in the atmosphere It revealed, very successfully, certain theoretically anticipated patterns. Subsequently it has come into general use in connection with upper-air analysis but for the most part its application is dominated by the original particular purpose. A rather different approach is to use isentropic analysis in a more purely descriptive fashion as the principal tool for upper-air analysis. This demands that an isentropic chart represent synoptically as much useful information as possible and that all phases of its preparation receive due care.
  • Technical Report
    Sound transmission in sea water: a preliminary report
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1941-02-01) Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    During the last 20 years or more commercial and naval ships have made increasing use of a variety of instruments in which the transmission of sound in sea water plays an important part. Throughout this development the engineers and physicists have devoted most of their attention to the instruments, both sending and receiving units, for from the beginning it seemed likely that through improvements in design and construction very great gains would result in the usefulness of such equipment. This has proved to be the case, and the instruments have now reached a high state of technical perfection, yet from the standpoint of naval tactics the great fluctuations in the effective range of some types of underwater sound equipment has been disappointing.
  • Technical Report
    Oceanographic observations from the Semmes : Jan. 14-Feb. 14, 1941
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1941-04-24) Iselin, Columbus O'Donnell
    Oceanographic Observations from the SEMMES Jan. 14-Feb. 14, 1941 On a recent cruise through the West Indies a program of oceanographic observations was carried out on board the experimental sound ship, the U.S.S. SEMMES, in conjunction with the submarine, TRITON. This work which began on January 14 at New London, Conn. and ended on February 14 at Key West, Fla. included a week of operations with the East Coast Sound School out of Key West. The bathythermograph, an instrument for measuring the sea water temperature continuously from the surface down to 75 fathoms, was used for oceanographic observations.
  • Technical Report
    A slide rule for computing supersonic ray diagrams from bathythermograph data
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1941-11-05) Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    This report, and the accompanying slide rule were prepared by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution for the National Defense Research Committee.
  • Technical Report
    Two types of lenses for deep underwater photography
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1942) Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    In underwater photography, the object is immersed in water while the image is usually formed in air. The most obvious, straightforward way to form an image under these circumstances with a conventional type of lens is to use a plane parallel slab of glass as a window in front of the lens to separate the water from the air space. For most types of camera lenses, this is a perfectly adequate solution; But if one looks at the problem carefully, it is evident that such a system introduces a chromatic aberration referred to as lateral color. The source of this aberration is illustrated in Fig. 1. The dispersion at the glass to air interface overcompensates for the dispersion at the water to glass interface. As a result, the direction of a ray entering the camera lens for any given ray incident on the window varies with the wavelength of light.
  • Technical Report
    Instructions for installing pressure-temperature recorder
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1942-01-21) Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Instructions for installing pressure-temperature recorder including location of parts on the submarine and the general description of the apparatus. The instrument is composed of two main elements: a) the pressure-sensitive element; and b) the temperature-sensitive element.
  • Technical Report
    Performance of bathythermograph with hand winch
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1942-05-05) Vine, Allyn Collin ; Ewing, W. Maurice
    On May l, 1942 a series of towing tests were made off New London to determine how satisfactory a small hand operated winch would be. The boat was an 83 ft. Coast Guard patrol boat with the end of the boom about 3 feet outboard and 15 feet forward of the stern. Towing tests were made at 8, 12, and 18 knots. At 18 knots two methods were tried: A. Those where the BT was dropped from the end of the boom in the usual manner. B. Those where the BT was dropped from the bow of the boat. This method gave a considerably greater depth of water for the same amount of wire out than the former method. In a longer boat where the BT can be carried 100 to 150 ft. ahead of the boom this additional depth may amount to 100 feet.
  • Technical Report
    Preliminary report on the prediction of "afternoon effect"
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1942-07-25) Iselin, Columbus O’Donnell ; Woodcock, A. H.
    Please see https://hdl.handle.net/1912/29562 for appendix information. With moderate or light winds and a clear sky the diurnal heating which occurs near the sea surface can cause a serious reduction in the range of submarine detection, especially on shallow targets. This has usually been called the "afternoon effect", although as will be noticed below the ranges often remain short long after sun down. The heating of surface waters which causes such sharp downward refraction can of course be noted on a bathythermograph record, provided pen vibration does not confuse the upper part of the trace. Unfortunately it is the upper 20 or 30 feet of a bathythermograph curve which in the case of ships moving faster than 12 knots is often somewhat difficult to read with sufficient certainty. Moreover, in planning a days operations it is clearly desirable to know in advance how much reduction in range may be expected from diurnal warming. Unfortunately it has turned out that five, more or less independent variables are involved. Listed in the order of their importance these are as follows: the altitude of the sun, the degree of cloud coverage, the strength of the wind, the difference in temperature between air and water, and the humidity of the air. It was at first thought that wind and cloud observations alone would be sufficient in most cases for a rough prediction of the seriousness of diurnal warming to echo ranging conditions. Thus it has been previously reported that with winds of force 4 or greater it can be expected that turbulence will prevent thermal stability from developing at depths critical to sound ranging, while with lighter winds ranges will be more or less reduced in the afternoon, except during cloudy weather. But the problem is considerably more complex than this and such simplification is not always justified.
  • Technical Report
    Preliminary report on the prediction of "Afternoon Effect"
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1942-07-25) Iselin, Columbus O'Donnell ; Woodcock, Alfred H. 
    With moderate or light winds and a clear sky the diurnal heating which occurs near the sea surface can cause a serious reduction in the range of submarine detection, especially on shallow targets. This has usually been called the “afternoon effect", although as will be noticed below the ranges often remain short long after sun down. The heating of surface waters which causes such sharp downward refraction can of course be noted on a bathythermograph record, provided pen vibration does not confuse the upper part of the trace. Unfortunately it is the upper 20 or 30 feet of a bathythermograph curve which in the case of ships moving faster than 12 knots is often somewhat difficult to read with sufficient certainty. Moreover, in planning a days operations it is clearly desirable to know in advance how much reduction in range may be expected from diurnal warming.
  • Technical Report
    Summary of bathythermograph observations from the western North Atlantic : October 1940 - December 1941
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1942-11-05) Iselin, Columbus O'Donnell
    The range of submarine detection is frequently limited by the refraction produced by vertical temperature gradients in the superficial layers of the ocean. In order to measure these temperature gradients and thus to permit predictions of the range, the bathythermograph was developed and is now being used on a considerable number of anti-submarine vessels, while a somewhat modified version of the instrument is being tried out on submarines. Some 6675 bathythermograph observations from the western North Atlantic have been examined in order to determine how frequently such observations should be made so that within practical limits and anti-submarine vessel may at all times know the assured range of its sound gear. The occurrence of the four basic types of refraction patterns is shown by a series of six charts. For all but one of these patterns the range can be rather quickly and easily estimated from simple tables; but when the so-called afternoon effect is encountered, which is on the average about 20% of the time, a more complete analysis is necessary. It is found that under the most unfavorable circumstances, that is, in mid-summer and near the edges of a strong current system, there is about one chance in three that the refraction pattern will chance significantly in a distance of four miles. At other times of year and in areas where horizontal variations in temperature are less pronounced a single bathythermograph observation can be considered representative of a much larger area. It is also shown that in the western North Atlantic about 92% of the time in summer and about 34% of the time in winter the assured range of submarine detection is limited by refraction to less than 2500 yards.
  • Technical Report
    Forethoughts on rubber rafts : familiar and new considerations in the handling of rubber life rafts -- including drift-rate curves, facts on drogues, handling of rafts under oars and sail, raft equipment, signalling devices, and new factors in oceanography, search and rescue. Submitted for the use of ocean flyers
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1944-06-15) Pingree, Frederick de W.
    This manual on the handling of rubber life rafts is submitted as an indicator of one type of specialized, integrated information not yet available to U.S. ocean flyers, Some of this information is new and conclusions drawn from it may considerably affect both the action of survivors in planning their raft procedure and navigation, and the action of air-sea rescue units in conducting search. Other of this information has already been collected and disseminated by various departments, bureaux, and agencies of the U.S. Armed Forces. The present manual attempts to combine both types of information and provide a more comprehensive coverage of raft problems than has as yet been made. While it is in no sense definitive and does not include the handling of all currently-issued or currently-developed types of raft (e.g., the "seatpack" one-man raft aboard small fighter planes, the large rubber sailing boat dropped to the survivors of such planes, or the excellent keel rafts still awaiting official approval and acceptance), it covers many problems common to all types and is submitted to aid in the preparation of pamphlets dealing with raft handling, raft navigation, raft equipment, aild the problems of survival and air-sea rescue.
  • Technical Report
    Acoustic properties of mud bottoms
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1944-12-06) Woollard, George Prior
    In Reference A and Reference B, it has been pointed out that the acoustic properties of bottoms classified as MUD on the present Bottom Sediment Charts appear to vary greatly. The present memorandum is divided into two parts . Part I summarizes the acoustic information obtained over MUD bottoms that is in the files of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Part II discusses the factors that apparently control the acoustic behavior of MUD bottoms and considers the probability or predicting successfully the acoustic behavior of any mud from a study of these related factors.
  • Technical Report
    Long range sound transmission : interim report no. 1, March 1, 1944 - January 20, 1945
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1945-08-25) Ewing, W. Maurice ; Worzel, J. Lamar
    Experiments are described to demonstrate a new method of sonic signalling at extremely long ranges in the oceans, utilizing the natural sound channel. Signals were made by causing a four pound charge of TNT to explode at about 4000 feet depth. These signals have the following qualities: (a) Extremely long range transmission (probably 10,000 miles). (b) Signal is positively identifiable. (c) Abrupt termination of the signal allows the arrival time to be read with an accuracy better than l/20th second. This permits location of source to better than a mile, if the signal is received at three suitably located stations. (d) The signal duration is related in such a way to the distance that the distance may be estimated to 30 miles in 1000 from reception at a single station. The limitations are: (a) It is required that the great circle path which the sound follows between source and receiver lie entirely in deep water (probably at least 1000 fathoms). (b) Sound travels in water at a speed of roughly 1 mile per second so that the interval between the origin of the signal and its reception becomes sufficiently great to be a handicap for some uses, particularly with aircraft. The signals were received to distances up to 900 miles. Two receiving arrangements have been used, a hydrophone hung 4000 feet over the side of a ship which was hove to, and a shore connected. hydrophone which lay on bottom 4000 feet deep. Extrapolation of the results indicate a range of at least 10,000 miles from this size charge. Recommendation is made to utilize a network of monitoring stations to locate planes, ships, and life rafts in distress on the open oceans. Three or more stations receiving a signal could locate the source better than one mile.
  • Technical Report
    Bathymetry, control positions and aspect of proposed SOFAR stations in the Pacific Ocean
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1946-07-24) Woollard, George Prior
    The purpose of this memorandum is to present the available information on the nature of the bottom off the coasts of California and Hawaii adjacent to the proposed SOFAR stations in the Pacific Ocean, the best probable location for the hydrophones, the probable areas of reception, the positions of fixed land control points, and other information that will facilitate the establishment of an efficient monitoring system. The writer is indebted to the Director and personnel of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for copies of boat sheets containing soundings, data on the deflection of the vertical, and triangulation station data in the areas involved.
  • Technical Report
    A manual for Sofar observers
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1947-07-01) Woollard, George Prior
    This manual has been prepared primarily for the men who are engaged in field research problems connected with the use of Sofar, the installation of Sofar monitoring stations and the operation of Sofar systems of position determination. Although the manual is devoted primarily to a discussion of problems peculiar to Sofar, it also included discussion of several allied subjects of which it is felt the field observer must have cognizance in order to carry out intelligent and successful investigations. The subject matter included is as follows: a discussion of the principles involved in Sofar, Sofar bombs and detonators, present Sofar monitoring equipment, types of Sofar observational data, interpretation of Sofar observations, Sofar triangulation methods, oceanographic measurements, and methods of determining ship's position.
  • Technical Report
    Long range sound transmission : interim report no. 2, SOFAR bombs and detonators
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1947-09-01) Cornell, Sidney
    The use of the natural sound channel in the oceans in transmitting sound signals over distances as great as 3000 miles is known as SOFAR. The sound signal is initiated at the axis of the sound channel by some sort of bomb and the signal so generated is picked up at great distance by a hydrophone lying at or near the axis of the channel. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the design and performance of the bombs developed to date for use in SOFAR. The bombs fall into two general classes, namely explosion bombs and implosion bombs. Explosion bombs consist of a detonator which by means of a booster fires a main charge usually of TNT or other high explosive. The only practical method of actuating the detonator at the present time is on the basis of pressure, the detonator being designed to fire at a pressure corresponding to that at the sound channel axis. As the depth of the axis varies with the geographical location it is necessary that the detonator be replaceable or that it be adjustable to meet the requirements of a given area. Typical firing depth requirements to be met are 100 fathoms in the temperate latitudes in tho Atlantic and 350 fathoms in corresponding latitudes in the Pacific. Explosion bombs have varied in design from uncased demolition blocks fired by a simple dotonator to a cast charge of TNT in a pressure proof case fired by an intricate mechanism with elaborate safety devices. Detonators have been principally of three types; (1) the Woods Hole pressure detonator, (2) the diaphram-percussion pin, and (3) the bourdon-electric. Implosion bombs consist of empty containers designed to collapse at or near the axis of the sound channel and thus to release sound energy. It is not know how efficient this sound source is as development work on it has been somewhat limited. The advantages of this device is that it is perfectly safe to use under all conditions, and that it is simple to manufacture. The main disadvantage is that it is rather bulky.
  • Technical Report
    Long range sound transmission : interim report no. 3, SOFAR position triangulation
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1947-09-15) Barbour, Lucius Hilliard
    The first sounds to arrive at the receiver commence at low intensity and with long intervals between them. Gradually 1 the interval shortens, the sounds become louder until they blend in to one loud sound which ceases abruptly. This peak cut-off is so marked, that when recorded on suitable equipment synchronized with an accurate time piece, the instant of its occurrence may be determined within an accuracy of .01 seconds. In this report, all computations will be based on this interval as a limit of accuracy attainable.
  • Technical Report
    Report on the soft-shell clam industry on the east coast of the United States
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1948-05-17) Turner, Harry J.
    The purpose of this report is to bring together as much information as is available about the soft shell clam and the clam industry so that the Committee of Clam Technicians may have a concrete basis for discussion of problems affecting that industry. Present knowledge of the biology of the clam, summarized in the first chapter, is based on literature cited in the bibliography at the end of the report. Production and price statistics were furnished by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. These data are supplemented by additional information obtained from the conservation departments of the coastal states extending from Maine through New Jersey.
  • Technical Report
    Sonic fishes of the Pacific
    (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1948-08-24) Fish, Marie Poland ; Fish, Chas. J.
    The present report is concerned with one of the oceanic biology subjects designated by the Navy for investigation. In compliance with the assignment the objective has been (1) to assemble, analyze and where possible correlate with environmental factors, available information from the central and western North Pacific, and (2) upon completion of this work to prepare recommendations for further field research designed to fulfill Navy requirements. A proposed program will be presented in a separate report.