Lerczak James A.

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Lerczak

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James A.

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Wetland-estuarine-shelf interactions in the Plum Island Sound and Merrimack River in the Massachusetts coast

(American Geophysical Union, 2010-10-16) Zhao, Liuzhi ; Chen, Changsheng ; Vallino, Joseph J. ; Hopkinson, Charles S. ; Beardsley, Robert C. ; Lin, Huichan ; Lerczak, James A.

Wetland-estuarine-shelf interaction processes in the Plum Island Sound and Merrimack River system in the Massachusetts coast are examined using the high-resolution unstructured grid, finite volume, primitive equations, coastal ocean model. The computational domain covers the estuarine and entire intertidal area with a horizontal resolution of 10–200 m. Driven by five tidal constituents forcing at the open boundary on the inner shelf of the eastern coast of the Gulf of Maine, the model has successfully simulated the 3-D flooding/drying process, temporal variability, and spatial distribution of salinity as well as the water exchange flux through the water passage between the Plum Island Sound and Merrimack River. The model predicts a complex recirculation loop around the Merrimack River, shelf, and Plum Island Sound. During the ebb tide, salt water in the Plum Island Sound is injected into the Merrimack River, while during flood tide, a significant amount of the freshwater in the Merrimack River is forced into Plum Island Sound. This water exchange varies with the magnitude of freshwater discharge and wind conditions, with a maximum contribution of ∼30%–40% variability in salinity over tidal cycles in the mouth of the Merrimack River. Nonlinear tidal rectification results in a complex clockwise residual recirculation loop around the Merrimack River, shelf, and Plum Island Sound. The net water flux from Plum Island Sound to the Merrimack River varies with the interaction between tide, river discharge, and wind forcing. This interaction, in turn, affects the salt transport from this system to the shelf. Since the resulting water transport into the shelf significantly varies with the variability of the wind, models that fail to resolve this complex estuarine and shelf system could either overestimate or underestimate the salt content over the shelf.
Turbulent mixing in a strongly forced salt wedge estuary

(American Geophysical Union, 2010-12-09) Ralston, David K. ; Geyer, W. Rockwell ; Lerczak, James A. ; Scully, Malcolm E.

Turbulent mixing of salt is examined in a shallow salt wedge estuary with strong fluvial and tidal forcing. A numerical model of the Merrimack River estuary is used to quantify turbulent stress, shear production, and buoyancy flux. Little mixing occurs during flood tides despite strong velocities because bottom boundary layer turbulence is dislocated from stratification elevated in the water column. During ebbs, bottom salinity fronts form at a series of bathymetric transitions. At the fronts, near-bottom velocity and shear stress are low, but shear, stress, and buoyancy flux are elevated at the pycnocline. Internal shear layers provide the dominant source of mixing during the early ebb. Later in the ebb, the pycnocline broadens and moves down such that boundary layer turbulence dominates mixing. Mixing occurs primarily during ebbs, with internal shear mixing accounting for about 50% of the total buoyancy flux. Both the relative contribution of internal shear mixing and the mixing efficiency increase with discharge, with bulk mixing efficiencies between 0.02 and 0.07. Buoyancy fluxes in the estuary increase with discharge up to about 400 m3 s−1 above which a majority of the mixing occurs offshore. Observed buoyancy fluxes were more consistent with the k-ɛ turbulence closure than the Mellor-Yamada closure, and more total mixing occurred in the estuary with k-ɛ. Calculated buoyancy fluxes were sensitive to horizontal grid resolution, as a lower resolution grid yielded less integrated buoyancy flux in the estuary and exported lower salinity water but likely had greater numerical mixing.
The evolution of a buoyant river plume in response to a pulse of high discharge from a small midlatitude river

(American Meteorological Society, 2020-07-01) Lemagie, Emily ; Lerczak, James A.

A unique feature of small mountainous rivers is that discharge can be elevated by an order of magnitude during a large rain event. The impact of time-varying discharge on freshwater transport pathways and alongshore propagation rates in the coastal ocean is not well understood. A suite of simulations in an idealized coastal ocean domain using the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS) with varying steady background discharge conditions (25–100 m3 s−1), pulse amplitude (200–800 m3 s−1), pulse duration (1–6 days), and steady downwelling-favorable winds (0–4 m s−1) are compared to investigate the downstream freshwater transport along the coast (in the direction of Kelvin wave propagation) following a discharge pulse from the river. The nose of the pulse propagates rapidly alongshore at 0.04–0.32 m s−1 (faster propagation corresponds with larger pulse volume and faster winds) transporting 13%–66% of the discharge. The remainder of the discharge volume initially accumulates in the bulge near the river mouth, with lower retention for longer pulse duration and stronger winds. Following the pulse, the bulge eddy disconnects from the river mouth and is advected downstream at 0–0.1 m s−1, equal to the depth-averaged wind-driven ambient water velocity. As it transits alongshore, it sheds freshwater volume farther downstream and the alongshore freshwater transport stays elevated between the nose and the transient bulge eddy. The evolution of freshwater transport at a plume cross section can be described by the background discharge, the passage of the pulse nose, and a slow exponential return to background conditions.
Numerical modeling of an estuary : a comprehensive skill assessment

(American Geophysical Union, 2005-05-04) Warner, John C. ; Geyer, W. Rockwell ; Lerczak, James A.

Numerical simulations of the Hudson River estuary using a terrain-following, three-dimensional model (Regional Ocean Modeling System, ROMS) are compared with an extensive set of timeseries and spatially resolved measurements over a 43-day period with large variations in tidal forcing and river discharge. The model is particularly effective at reproducing the observed temporal variations in both the salinity and current structure, including tidal, spring-neap, and river discharge induced variability. Large observed variations in stratification between neap and spring tides are captured qualitatively and quantitatively by the model. The observed structure and variations of the longitudinal salinity gradient are also well reproduced. The most notable discrepancy between the model and the data is in the vertical salinity structure. While the surface-to-bottom salinity difference is well reproduced, the stratification in the model tends to extend all the way to the water surface, whereas the observations indicate a distinct pycnocline and a surface mixed layer. Because the southern boundary condition is located near the mouth the estuary, the salinity within the domain is particularly sensitive to the specification of salinity at the boundary. A boundary condition for the horizontal salinity gradient, based on the local value of salinity, is developed to incorporate physical processes beyond the open boundary not resolved by the model. Model results are sensitive to the specification of the bottom roughness length and vertical stability functions, insofar as they influence the intensity of vertical mixing. The results only varied slightly between different turbulence closure methods of k-ε, k-ω, and k-kl.
Environmental controls, oceanography and population dynamics of pathogens and harmful algal blooms: connecting sources to human exposure

(BioMed Central, 2008-11-07) Dyble, Julianne ; Bienfang, Paul ; Dusek, Eva ; Hitchcock, Gary ; Holland, A. Fredrick ; Laws, Edward A. ; Lerczak, James A. ; McGillicuddy, Dennis J. ; Minnett, Peter ; Moore, Stephanie K. ; O'Kelly, Charles ; Solo-Gabriele, Helena M. ; Wang, John D.

Coupled physical-biological models are capable of linking the complex interactions between environmental factors and physical hydrodynamics to simulate the growth, toxicity and transport of infectious pathogens and harmful algal blooms (HABs). Such simulations can be used to assess and predict the impact of pathogens and HABs on human health. Given the widespread and increasing reliance of coastal communities on aquatic systems for drinking water, seafood and recreation, such predictions are critical for making informed resource management decisions. Here we identify three challenges to making this connection between pathogens/HABs and human health: predicting concentrations and toxicity; identifying the spatial and temporal scales of population and ecosystem interactions; and applying the understanding of population dynamics of pathogens/HABs to management strategies. We elaborate on the need to meet each of these challenges, describe how modeling approaches can be used and discuss strategies for moving forward in addressing these challenges.
Subtidal salinity and velocity in the Hudson River estuary : observations and modeling

(American Meteorological Society, 2008-04) Ralston, David K. ; Geyer, W. Rockwell ; Lerczak, James A.

A tidally and cross-sectionally averaged model based on the temporal evolution of the quasi-steady Hansen and Rattray equations is applied to simulate the salinity distribution and vertical exchange flow along the Hudson River estuary. The model achieves high skill at hindcasting salinity and residual velocity variation during a 110-day period in 2004 covering a wide range of river discharges and tidal forcing. The approach is based on an existing model framework that has been modified to improve model skill relative to observations. The external forcing has been modified to capture meteorological time-scale variability in salinity, stratification, and residual velocity due to sea level fluctuations at the open boundary and along-estuary wind stress. To reflect changes in vertical mixing due to stratification, the vertical mixing coefficients have been modified to use the bottom boundary layer height rather than the water depth as an effective mixing length scale. The boundary layer parameterization depends on the tidal amplitude and the local baroclinic pressure gradient through the longitudinal Richardson number, and improves the model response to spring–neap variability in tidal amplitude during periods of high river discharge. Finally, steady-state model solutions are evaluated for both the Hudson River and northern San Francisco Bay over a range of forcing conditions. Agreement between the model and scaling of equilibrium salinity intrusions lends confidence that the approach is transferable to other estuaries, despite significant differences in bathymetry. Discrepancies between the model results and observations at high river discharge are indicative of limits at which the formulation begins to fail, and where an alternative approach that captures two-layer dynamics would be more appropriate.
The temporal response of the length of a partially stratified estuary to changes in river flow and tidal amplitude

(American Meteorological Society, 2009-04) Lerczak, James A. ; Geyer, W. Rockwell ; Ralston, David K.

The temporal response of the length of a partially mixed estuary to changes in freshwater discharge Qf and tidal amplitude UT is studied using a 108-day time series collected along the length of the Hudson River estuary in the spring and summer of 2004 and a long-term (13.4 yr) record of Qf, UT, and near-surface salinity. When Qf was moderately high, the tidally averaged length of the estuary L5, here defined as the distance from the mouth to the up-estuary location where the vertically averaged salinity is 5 psu, fluctuated by more than 47 km over the spring–neap cycle, ranging from 28 to >75 km. During low flow periods, L5 varied very little over the spring–neap cycle and approached a steady length. The response is quantified and compared to predictions of a linearized model derived from the global estuarine salt balance. The model is forced by fluctuations in Qf and UT relative to average discharge Qo and tidal amplitude UTo and predicts the linear response time scale τ and the steady-state length Lo for average forcing. Two vertical mixing schemes are considered, in which 1) mixing is proportional to UT and 2) dependence of mixing on stratification is also parameterized. Based on least squares fits between L5 and estuary length predicted by the model, estimated τ varied by an order of magnitude from a period of high average discharge (Qo = 750 m3 s−1, τ = 4.2 days) to a period of low discharge (Qo = 170 m3 s−1, τ = 40.4 days). Over the range of observed discharge, Lo Qo−0.30±0.03, consistent with the theoretical scaling for an estuary whose landward salt flux is driven by vertical estuarine exchange circulation. Estimated τ was proportional to the discharge advection time scale (LoA/Qo, where A is the cross-sectional area of the estuary). However, τ was 3–4 times larger than the theoretical prediction. The model with stratification-dependent mixing predicted variations in L5 with higher skill than the model with mixing proportional to UT. This model provides insight into the time-dependent response of a partially stratified estuary to changes in forcing and explains the strong dependence of the amplitude of the spring–neap response on freshwater discharge. However, the utility of the linear model is limited because it assumes a uniform channel, and because the underlying dynamics are nonlinear, and the forcing Qf and UT can undergo large amplitude variations. River discharge, in particular, can vary by over an order of magnitude over time scales comparable to or shorter than the response time scale of the estuary.
Estuarine exchange flow quantified with isohaline coordinates : contrasting long and short estuaries

(American Meteorological Society, 2012-05) Chen, Shih-Nan ; Geyer, W. Rockwell ; Ralston, David K. ; Lerczak, James A.

Isohaline coordinate analysis is used to compare the exchange flow in two contrasting estuaries, the long (with respect to tidal excursion) Hudson River and the short Merrimack River, using validated numerical models. The isohaline analysis averages fluxes in salinity space rather than in physical space, yielding the isohaline exchange flow that incorporates both subtidal and tidal fluxes and precisely satisfies the Knudsen relation. The isohaline analysis can be consistently applied to both subtidally and tidally dominated estuaries. In the Hudson, the isohaline exchange flow is similar to results from the Eulerian analysis, and the conventional estuarine theory can be used to quantify the salt transport based on scaling with the baroclinic pressure gradient. In the Merrimack, the isohaline exchange flow is much larger than the Eulerian quantity, indicating the dominance of tidal salt flux. The exchange flow does not scale with the baroclinic pressure gradient but rather with tidal volume flux. This tidal exchange is driven by tidal pumping due to the jet–sink flow at the mouth constriction, leading to a linear dependence of exchange flow on tidal volume flux. Finally, a tidal conversion parameter Qin/Qprism, measuring the fraction of tidal inflow Qprism that is converted into net exchange Qin, is proposed to characterize the exchange processes among different systems. It is found that the length scale ratio between tidal excursion and salinity intrusion provides a characteristic to distinguish estuarine regimes.
Mechanisms driving the time-dependent salt flux in a partially stratified estuary

(American Meteorological Society, 2006-12) Lerczak, James A. ; Geyer, W. Rockwell

The subtidal salt balance and the mechanisms driving the downgradient salt flux in the Hudson River estuary are investigated using measurements from a cross-channel mooring array of current meters, temperature and conductivity sensors, and cross-channel and along-estuary shipboard surveys obtained during the spring of 2002. Steady (subtidal) vertical shear dispersion, resulting from the estuarine exchange flow, was the dominant mechanism driving the downgradient salt flux, and varied by over an order of magnitude over the spring–neap cycle, with maximum values during neap tides and minimum values during spring tides. Corresponding longitudinal dispersion rates were as big as 2500 m2 s−1 during neap tides. The salinity intrusion was not in a steady balance during the study period. During spring tides, the oceanward advective salt flux resulting from the net outflow balanced the time rate of change of salt content landward of the study site, and salt was flushed out of the estuary. During neap tides, the landward steady shear dispersion salt flux exceeded the oceanward advective salt flux, and salt entered the estuary. Factor-of-4 variations in the salt content occurred at the spring–neap time scale and at the time scale of variations in the net outflow. On average, the salt flux resulting from tidal correlations between currents and salinity (tidal oscillatory salt flux) was an order of magnitude smaller than that resulting from steady shear dispersion. During neap tides, this flux was minimal (or slightly countergradient) and was due to correlations between tidal currents and vertical excursions of the halocline. During spring tides, the tidal oscillatory salt flux was driven primarily by oscillatory shear dispersion, with an associated longitudinal dispersion rate of about 130 m2 s−1.
Estuarine boundary layer mixing processes : insights from dye experiments

(American Meteorological Society, 2007-07) Chant, Robert J. ; Geyer, W. Rockwell ; Houghton, Robert ; Hunter, Elias J. ; Lerczak, James A.

A series of dye releases in the Hudson River estuary elucidated diapycnal mixing rates and temporal variability over tidal and fortnightly time scales. Dye was injected in the bottom boundary layer for each of four releases during different phases of the tide and of the spring–neap cycle. Diapycnal mixing occurs primarily through entrainment that is driven by shear production in the bottom boundary layer. On flood the dye extended vertically through the bottom mixed layer, and its concentration decreased abruptly near the base of the pycnocline, usually at a height corresponding to a velocity maximum. Boundary layer growth is consistent with a one-dimensional, stress-driven entrainment model. A model was developed for the vertical structure of the vertical eddy viscosity in the flood tide boundary layer that is proportional to u2*/N∞, where u* and N∞ are the bottom friction velocity and buoyancy frequency above the boundary layer. The model also predicts that the buoyancy flux averaged over the bottom boundary layer is equal to 0.06N∞u2* or, based on the structure of the boundary layer equal to 0.1NBLu2*, where NBL is the buoyancy frequency across the flood-tide boundary layer. Estimates of shear production and buoyancy flux indicate that the flux Richardson number in the flood-tide boundary layer is 0.1–0.18, consistent with the model indicating that the flux Richardson number is between 0.1 and 0.14. During ebb, the boundary layer was more stratified, and its vertical extent was not as sharply delineated as in the flood. During neap tide the rate of mixing during ebb was significantly weaker than on flood, owing to reduced bottom stress and stabilization by stratification. As tidal amplitude increased ebb mixing increased and more closely resembled the boundary layer entrainment process observed during the flood. Tidal straining modestly increased the entrainment rate during the flood, and it restratified the boundary layer and inhibited mixing during the ebb.
The influence of lateral advection on the residual estuarine circulation : a numerical modeling study of the Hudson River Estuary

(American Meteorological Society, 2009-01) Scully, Malcolm E. ; Geyer, W. Rockwell ; Lerczak, James A.

In most estuarine systems it is assumed that the dominant along-channel momentum balance is between the integrated pressure gradient and bed stress. Scaling the amplitude of the estuarine circulation based on this balance has been shown to have predictive skill. However, a number of authors recently highlighted important nonlinear processes that contribute to the subtidal dynamics at leading order. In this study, a previously validated numerical model of the Hudson River estuary is used to examine the forces driving the residual estuarine circulation and to test the predictive skill of two linear scaling relationships. Results demonstrate that the nonlinear advective acceleration terms contribute to the subtidal along-channel momentum balance at leading order. The contribution of these nonlinear terms is driven largely by secondary lateral flows. Under a range of forcing conditions in the model runs, the advective acceleration terms nearly always act in concert with the baroclinic pressure gradient, reinforcing the residual circulation. Despite the strong contribution of the nonlinear advective terms to the subtidal dynamical balance, a linear scaling accurately predicts the strength of the observed residual circulation in the model. However, this result is largely fortuitous, as this scaling does not account for two processes that are fundamental to the estuarine circulation. The skill of this scaling results because of the compensatory relationship between the contribution of the advective acceleration terms and the suppression of turbulence due to density stratification. Both of these processes, neither of which is accounted for in the linear scaling, increase the residual estuarine circulation but have an opposite dependence on tidal amplitude and, consequently, strength of stratification.
Hudson River estuary 2004 field experiment

(Woods Hole Oceanograpic Institution, 2023-08-08) Lerczak, James A. ; Ralston, David K. ; Geyer, W. Rockwell ; Conley, Margaret M.

This dataset includes data from moorings and shipboard observations in the Hudson River estuary during the spring and summer of 2004. The moorings were deployed in the thalweg at 7 sites for 108 days and included a combination of bottom temperature, conductivity, and pressure measurements as well as upward-looking ADCPs. Each mooring site also had near-surface temperature and conductivity measurements. Shipboard CTD surveys were carried out along the estuary on 7 days just after the deployment and just before the recovery of the moorings.
Hudson River estuary 2002 field experiment: moorings

(Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 2023-09-20) Geyer, W. Rockwell ; Chant, Robert J. ; Houghton, Robert ; Lerczak, James A. ; Hunter, Elias J. ; Conley, Margaret

This dataset includes data from moorings deployed in the Hudson River estuary during the spring of 2002. The moorings were deployed at Spuyten Duyvil for 43 days and included a cross-channel array of temperature and conductivity sensors as well as 4 upward-looking ADCPs and 2 pressure sensors flanking the channel.

Lerczak James A.

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