Smith
Craig R.
Smith
Craig R.
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ArticleDeep, diverse and definitely different : unique attributes of the world's largest ecosystem(Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union, 2010-09-22) Ramirez-Llodra, Eva ; Brandt, A. ; Danovaro, Roberto ; De Mol, B. ; Escobar Briones, Elva ; German, Christopher R. ; Levin, Lisa A. ; Arbizu, P. Martinez ; Menot, Lenaick ; Buhl-Mortensen, P. ; Narayanaswamy, Bhavani E. ; Smith, Craig R. ; Tittensor, D. P. ; Tyler, Paul A. ; Vanreusel, A. ; Vecchione, M.The deep sea, the largest biome on Earth, has a series of characteristics that make this environment both distinct from other marine and land ecosystems and unique for the entire planet. This review describes these patterns and processes, from geological settings to biological processes, biodiversity and biogeographical patterns. It concludes with a brief discussion of current threats from anthropogenic activities to deep-sea habitats and their fauna. Investigations of deep-sea habitats and their fauna began in the late 19th century. In the intervening years, technological developments and stimulating discoveries have promoted deep-sea research and changed our way of understanding life on the planet. Nevertheless, the deep sea is still mostly unknown and current discovery rates of both habitats and species remain high. The geological, physical and geochemical settings of the deep-sea floor and the water column form a series of different habitats with unique characteristics that support specific faunal communities. Since 1840, 28 new habitats/ecosystems have been discovered from the shelf break to the deep trenches and discoveries of new habitats are still happening in the early 21st century. However, for most of these habitats the global area covered is unknown or has been only very roughly estimated; an even smaller – indeed, minimal – proportion has actually been sampled and investigated. We currently perceive most of the deep-sea ecosystems as heterotrophic, depending ultimately on the flux on organic matter produced in the overlying surface ocean through photosynthesis. The resulting strong food limitation thus shapes deep-sea biota and communities, with exceptions only in reducing ecosystems such as inter alia hydrothermal vents or cold seeps. Here, chemoautolithotrophic bacteria play the role of primary producers fuelled by chemical energy sources rather than sunlight. Other ecosystems, such as seamounts, canyons or cold-water corals have an increased productivity through specific physical processes, such as topographic modification of currents and enhanced transport of particles and detrital matter. Because of its unique abiotic attributes, the deep sea hosts a specialized fauna. Although there are no phyla unique to deep waters, at lower taxonomic levels the composition of the fauna is distinct from that found in the upper ocean. Amongst other characteristic patterns, deep-sea species may exhibit either gigantism or dwarfism, related to the decrease in food availability with depth. Food limitation on the seafloor and water column is also reflected in the trophic structure of heterotrophic deep-sea communities, which are adapted to low energy availability. In most of these heterotrophic habitats, the dominant megafauna is composed of detritivores, while filter feeders are abundant in habitats with hard substrata (e.g. mid-ocean ridges, seamounts, canyon walls and coral reefs). Chemoautotrophy through symbiotic relationships is dominant in reducing habitats. Deep-sea biodiversity is among of the highest on the planet, mainly composed of macro and meiofauna, with high evenness. This is true for most of the continental margins and abyssal plains with hot spots of diversity such as seamounts or cold-water corals. However, in some ecosystems with particularly "extreme" physicochemical processes (e.g. hydrothermal vents), biodiversity is low but abundance and biomass are high and the communities are dominated by a few species. Two large-scale diversity patterns have been discussed for deep-sea benthic communities. First, a unimodal relationship between diversity and depth is observed, with a peak at intermediate depths (2000–3000 m), although this is not universal and particular abiotic processes can modify the trend. Secondly, a poleward trend of decreasing diversity has been discussed, but this remains controversial and studies with larger and more robust data sets are needed. Because of the paucity in our knowledge of habitat coverage and species composition, biogeographic studies are mostly based on regional data or on specific taxonomic groups. Recently, global biogeographic provinces for the pelagic and benthic deep ocean have been described, using environmental and, where data were available, taxonomic information. This classification described 30 pelagic provinces and 38 benthic provinces divided into 4 depth ranges, as well as 10 hydrothermal vent provinces. One of the major issues faced by deep-sea biodiversity and biogeographical studies is related to the high number of species new to science that are collected regularly, together with the slow description rates for these new species. Taxonomic coordination at the global scale is particularly difficult, but is essential if we are to analyse large diversity and biogeographic trends. Because of their remoteness, anthropogenic impacts on deep-sea ecosystems have not been addressed very thoroughly until recently. The depletion of biological and mineral resources on land and in shallow waters, coupled with technological developments, are promoting the increased interest in services provided by deep-water resources. Although often largely unknown, evidence for the effects of human activities in deep-water ecosystems – such as deep-sea mining, hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation, fishing, dumping and littering – is already accumulating. Because of our limited knowledge of deep-sea biodiversity and ecosystem functioning and because of the specific life-history adaptations of many deep-sea species (e.g. slow growth and delayed maturity), it is essential that the scientific community works closely with industry, conservation organisations and policy makers to develop robust and efficient conservation and management options.
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DatasetInfauna counts from BoWLs moorings deployed and recovered from R/V Oceanus cruises OC1304A and OC1406B off the Coast of Oregon from 2013-2014 (BOWLS project)(Biological and Chemical Oceanography Data Management Office (BCO-DMO). Contact: bco-dmo-data@whoi.edu, 2021-01-14) Smith, Craig R. ; Halanych, Kenneth M.This dataset contains counts of infaunal organism Phyla from BOWLS moorings deployed in April of 2013 and recovered in June of 2014. Phyla sampled: Annelida, Arthropoda,Chordata, Cnidaria, Echinodermata, Kinorhynca, Mollusca, Nemertea, and Platyhelminthes. Also included are the mooring identifiers, substrate type (control, wood, whale-bone), latitude, longitude, depth, and deployment and recovery dates. For a complete list of measurements, refer to the full dataset description in the supplemental file 'Dataset_description.pdf'. The most current version of this dataset is available at: https://www.bco-dmo.org/dataset/724434
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DatasetBulk isotopic composition (d15N and d13C) of abyssal megafauna and macrofauna from Stations M and Aloha(Biological and Chemical Oceanography Data Management Office (BCO-DMO). Contact: bco-dmo-data@whoi.edu, 2022-01-12) Drazen, Jeffrey C. ; Popp, Brian N. ; Smith, Craig R.This dataset includes bulk isotopic composition (d15N and d13C) of abyssal megafauna and macrofauna from Station M and Station Aloha. Macrofauna and megafauna were collected in May and October 2019 using the HOV Alvin and the ROV Doc Ricketts, respectively, at Station M and in July 2019, January 2020, and July 2020 using ROV Lu'ukai at Station Aloha. Macrofauna at Station M were collected using HOV-operated Ekman cores (20x20 cm). For a complete list of measurements, refer to the full dataset description in the supplemental file 'Dataset_description.pdf'. The most current version of this dataset is available at: https://www.bco-dmo.org/dataset/866774
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DatasetMetadata associated with genomic and genetic data collected from organisms obtained on BOWLs landers, R/V Oceanus June 22-27, 2014 (BOWLS project)(Biological and Chemical Oceanography Data Management Office (BCO-DMO). Contact: bco-dmo-data@whoi.edu, 2021-01-14) Smith, Craig R. ; Halanych, Kenneth M.Metadata associated with genomic and genetic data collected from organisms obtained on BOWLs landers, R/V Oceanus June 22-27, 2014. For a complete list of measurements, refer to the full dataset description in the supplemental file 'Dataset_description.pdf'. The most current version of this dataset is available at: https://www.bco-dmo.org/dataset/662996
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ArticleMajor impacts of climate change on deep-sea benthic ecosystems(University of California Press, 2017-02-23) Sweetman, Andrew K. ; Thurber, Andrew R. ; Smith, Craig R. ; Levin, Lisa A. ; Mora, Camilo ; Wei, Chih-Lin ; Gooday, Andrew J. ; Jones, Daniel O. B. ; Rex, Michael ; Yasuhara, Moriaki ; Ingels, Jeroen ; Ruhl, Henry A. ; Frieder, Christina A. ; Danovaro, Roberto ; Würzberg, Laura ; Baco, Amy R. ; Grupe, Benjamin ; Pasulka, Alexis ; Meyer, Kirstin S. ; Dunlop, Katherine Mary ; Henry, Lea-Anne ; Roberts, J. MurrayThe deep sea encompasses the largest ecosystems on Earth. Although poorly known, deep seafloor ecosystems provide services that are vitally important to the entire ocean and biosphere. Rising atmospheric greenhouse gases are bringing about significant changes in the environmental properties of the ocean realm in terms of water column oxygenation, temperature, pH and food supply, with concomitant impacts on deep-sea ecosystems. Projections suggest that abyssal (3000–6000 m) ocean temperatures could increase by 1°C over the next 84 years, while abyssal seafloor habitats under areas of deep-water formation may experience reductions in water column oxygen concentrations by as much as 0.03 mL L–1 by 2100. Bathyal depths (200–3000 m) worldwide will undergo the most significant reductions in pH in all oceans by the year 2100 (0.29 to 0.37 pH units). O2 concentrations will also decline in the bathyal NE Pacific and Southern Oceans, with losses up to 3.7% or more, especially at intermediate depths. Another important environmental parameter, the flux of particulate organic matter to the seafloor, is likely to decline significantly in most oceans, most notably in the abyssal and bathyal Indian Ocean where it is predicted to decrease by 40–55% by the end of the century. Unfortunately, how these major changes will affect deep-seafloor ecosystems is, in some cases, very poorly understood. In this paper, we provide a detailed overview of the impacts of these changing environmental parameters on deep-seafloor ecosystems that will most likely be seen by 2100 in continental margin, abyssal and polar settings. We also consider how these changes may combine with other anthropogenic stressors (e.g., fishing, mineral mining, oil and gas extraction) to further impact deep-seafloor ecosystems and discuss the possible societal implications.
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ArticleGlobal observing needs in the deep ocean(Frontiers Media, 2019-03-29) Levin, Lisa A. ; Bett, Brian J. ; Gates, Andrew R. ; Heimbach, Patrick ; Howe, Bruce M. ; Janssen, Felix ; McCurdy, Andrea ; Ruhl, Henry A. ; Snelgrove, Paul V. R. ; Stocks, Karen ; Bailey, David ; Baumann-Pickering, Simone ; Beaverson, Chris ; Benfield, Mark C. ; Booth, David J. ; Carreiro-Silva, Marina ; Colaço, Ana ; Eblé, Marie C. ; Fowler, Ashley M. ; Gjerde, Kristina M. ; Jones, Daniel O. B. ; Katsumata, Katsuro ; Kelley, Deborah S. ; Le Bris, Nadine ; Leonardi, Alan P. ; Lejzerowicz, Franck ; Macreadie, Peter I. ; McLean, Dianne ; Meitz, Fred ; Morato, Telmo ; Netburn, Amanda ; Pawlowski, Jan ; Smith, Craig R. ; Sun, Song ; Uchida, Hiroshi ; Vardaro, Michael F. ; Venkatesan, Ramasamy ; Weller, Robert A.The deep ocean below 200 m water depth is the least observed, but largest habitat on our planet by volume and area. Over 150 years of exploration has revealed that this dynamic system provides critical climate regulation, houses a wealth of energy, mineral, and biological resources, and represents a vast repository of biological diversity. A long history of deep-ocean exploration and observation led to the initial concept for the Deep-Ocean Observing Strategy (DOOS), under the auspices of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS). Here we discuss the scientific need for globally integrated deep-ocean observing, its status, and the key scientific questions and societal mandates driving observing requirements over the next decade. We consider the Essential Ocean Variables (EOVs) needed to address deep-ocean challenges within the physical, biogeochemical, and biological/ecosystem sciences according to the Framework for Ocean Observing (FOO), and map these onto scientific questions. Opportunities for new and expanded synergies among deep-ocean stakeholders are discussed, including academic-industry partnerships with the oil and gas, mining, cable and fishing industries, the ocean exploration and mapping community, and biodiversity conservation initiatives. Future deep-ocean observing will benefit from the greater integration across traditional disciplines and sectors, achieved through demonstration projects and facilitated reuse and repurposing of existing deep-sea data efforts. We highlight examples of existing and emerging deep-sea methods and technologies, noting key challenges associated with data volume, preservation, standardization, and accessibility. Emerging technologies relevant to deep-ocean sustainability and the blue economy include novel genomics approaches, imaging technologies, and ultra-deep hydrographic measurements. Capacity building will be necessary to integrate capabilities into programs and projects at a global scale. Progress can be facilitated by Open Science and Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, Reusable (FAIR) data principles and converge on agreed to data standards, practices, vocabularies, and registries. We envision expansion of the deep-ocean observing community to embrace the participation of academia, industry, NGOs, national governments, international governmental organizations, and the public at large in order to unlock critical knowledge contained in the deep ocean over coming decades, and to realize the mutual benefits of thoughtful deep-ocean observing for all elements of a sustainable ocean.
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DatasetMetadata describing mooring deployment and recovery from R/V Oceanus cruises OC1304A and OC1406B off the Coast of Oregon from 2013-2014 (BOWLS project)(Biological and Chemical Oceanography Data Management Office (BCO-DMO). Contact: bco-dmo-data@whoi.edu, 2021-01-14) Smith, Craig R. ; Halanych, Kenneth M.Metadata describing mooring deployment and recovery from R/V Oceanus cruises OC1304A and OC1406B off the Coast of Oregon from 2013-2014 (BOWLS project) For a complete list of measurements, refer to the full dataset description in the supplemental file 'Dataset_description.pdf'. The most current version of this dataset is available at: https://www.bco-dmo.org/dataset/568713
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DatasetEpifauna counts from BOWLS moorings deployed and recovered from R/V Oceanus cruises OC1304A and OC1406B off the Coast of Oregon from 2013-2014 (BOWLS project)(Biological and Chemical Oceanography Data Management Office (BCO-DMO). Contact: bco-dmo-data@whoi.edu, 2021-01-14) Smith, Craig R. ; Halanych, Kenneth M.This dataset contains counts of epifaunal organism Phyla from BOWLS moorings deployed in April of 2013 and recovered in June of 2014. Phyla sampled: Annelida, Arthropoda, Chaetognatha, Chordata, Cnidaria, Echinodermata, Kinorhynca, Mollusca, Nematoda, Nemertea, and Platyhelminthes. Also included are the mooring identifiers, substrate type (control, wood, whale-bone), latitude, longitude, depth, and deployment and recovery dates. For a complete list of measurements, refer to the full dataset description in the supplemental file 'Dataset_description.pdf'. The most current version of this dataset is available at: https://www.bco-dmo.org/dataset/676064
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ArticleA new US polar research vessel for the twenty-first century(The Oceanography Society, 2012-09) Dunbar, Robert B. ; Alberts, Jon ; Ashjian, Carin J. ; Asper, Vernon L. ; Chayes, Dale ; Domack, Eugene ; Ducklow, Hugh W. ; Huber, Bruce ; Lawver, Lawrence ; Oliver, Daniel ; Russell, Doug ; Smith, Craig R. ; Vernet, MariaScientific and political interests at the poles are significant and rapidly increasing, driven in part by the effects of climate change and emerging geopolitical realities. The polar regions provide important services to global ecosystems and humankind, ranging from food and energy to freshwater and biodiversity. Yet the poles are experiencing changes at rates that far outpace the rest of the planet. Coastal Arctic communities are impacted by climate change through coastal erosion, sea level rise, ice loss, and altered marine food webs, threatening the future of their subsistence lifestyle. Climate change has dramatically increased the melt rate of ice sheets and glaciers at both poles and has the potential to significantly raise sea level worldwide. Oil and gas drilling as well as transportation in the Arctic have reached all-time high levels, in part because of reduced sea ice cover. Tourism is a growing industry at both poles, bringing more than 20,000 tourists each year to the western Antarctic Peninsula alone. The collateral effects of human activities include the potential for pollution of the marine environment, particularly through spills of hydrocarbons. Our ability to understand the effects of such activities and mishaps is limited, particularly in ice-covered areas during winter.